Nutritional Enhancement of Cultivated Meat
Introduction
The advent of conventional meat alternatives, both plant and cell-based, has sparked conversation around the potential to fine-tune and enhance nutritional content. As reports suggest that one-third of the United States population is deficient in at least one vitamin or mineral despite exceeding caloric intake recommendations, novel solutions for micronutrient supplementation of cultured meat products are being be explored 1. Such nutritional enhancement can take various forms – incorporation into scaffolds and media or the engineering of cell metabolic pathways – and target a range of nutrients including vitamins, minerals, and antioxidant-rich plant extracts. This article will weigh the benefits of nutrient fortification in cultured meat, outline current techniques for nutrient enhancement, and discuss potential challenges.
Nutrient Overview
The proposed nutritional enhancements can be broken down into the following four categories: macronutrients, vitamins, minerals, and non-nutrients (Figure 1). Macronutrients encompass carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Vitamins include vitamin A, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), vitamin B6, folate (B9), vitamin B12, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, and choline, a vitamin-like substance. Minerals are elements like calcium, iron, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and more. Lastly, non-nutrients comprise a category of additives that are beneficial to health but not considered a nutrient, such as dietary fiber and antioxidants.
Figure 1. An outline of the nutritional categories that could be targeted in for enhancement in cultured meat products.
Macronutrient Targets: Fats and Proteins
In past decades saturated fat and its detrimental effects on health has become a controversial topic. While some studies report saturated fat rich foods do not increase the risk for cardiovascular disease or diabetes 2, other studies report decreases in atherosclerosis and up to 30% reductions in cardiovascular disease when saturated fats are replaced with unsaturated fats 3,4. Animal derived products are the most common sources of saturated fats, while plant foods mainly contain monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Several articles have suggested the possibility of supplementing cells with unsaturated fats rather than saturated fats during the culturing process. Similarly, the addition of health benefitting omega-3 fatty acids, derived from seafood or algae, has been proposed 5. However, the proposed process of the supplementation remains unclear. Muscle cells store relatively small amounts of fat so these approaches would require co-culture with fat cells (fatty acid storage sites) or addition at a later stage of processing as would occur with plant-based emulsion meat products. The latter approach is significantly less innovative and would not be unique to the cultured meat process.
Dietary protein could also be elevated to enhance the perceived nutritional value of cultured meat compared to other options. First, protein quantity could be elevated to boost a product’s inherent protein levels. Technavio has reported that the market for high-protein based foods is set to grow by $27.5 billion from 2020 to 2024, reflecting an increasing demand for protein-rich foods 6. Second, the amino acid profile of the dietary protein could be modulated to improve nutritional content. Research in recent years has found that the composition of amino acids in dietary protein can influence health outcomes. Reductions in dietary branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) promote leanness and improved insulin sensitivity 7 while limiting sulfur-containing amino acids (SCAAs) like methionine has links to extending lifespan 8. Therefore, products delivering higher than average quantities of protein or health promoting amino acid profiles could gain traction among health conscious individuals.
Micronutrient Targets: Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins are organic compounds produced by living organisms that are critical to key physiological processes of the nervous system, vision, red blood cells, bone formation, and more. There are thirteen essential vitamins: vitamins A, C, D, E, K and eight B vitamins. Vitamins can be water soluble (B, C) or fat soluble (A, D, E, K). Vitamins can act as coenzymes, hormones, or even antioxidants.
Minerals are inorganic compounds derived from the earth. A subset of existing minerals are required for human health including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulfur, iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride and selenium. Deficiencies in any of these essential vitamins or minerals can lead to diseases such as anemia (iron deficiency), thyroid problems (iodine deficiency), and bone frailty (vitamin D deficiency) to name a few.
According to the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans published by the USDA, vitamins A, D, E, and C as well as choline and minerals calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron (in females) are underconsumed 9. Calcium, potassium, and vitamin D are specifically counted as nutrients of public health concern due to intake levels below the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and the potential for underconsumption to lead to health issues.
Meat and meat alternative products can be a good source of some of these underconsumed minerals, but typically lack significant vitamin A, B, C, D, and E content. Conventional 80/20 ground beef contains decent amounts of the minerals potassium, magnesium, and iron relative to the recommended Daily Values (DV) set forth by the FDA 10, but are poor sources of vitamins A and E (Figure 2 and Table 1) and typically contain no or negligible amounts of vitamins C and D. Plant based burgers like the Impossible Burger have higher levels of potassium, calcium, and iron, and extremely high amounts of vitamin B1 in comparison to conventional meat. The impossible burger does not contain any vitamin D and it is unknown what, if any, vitamin A, C, and E the product contains. The ingredients list “mixed tocopherols (antioxidant)” so there may be trace levels of various chemical forms of vitamin E.**
At minimum cultured meat products will need to match the nutritional value of conventional meat. It has been proposed that cultured meat producers could take advantage of the unique culturing and growth process to supplement micronutrients and offer a more complete range of minerals and vitamins. However, as we will discuss in this article, the general feasibility of this approach is uncertain. Not only does vitamin stability pose great challenges to food manufacturers but there is insufficient data definitively describing the efficiency of nutrient uptake from media by cells.
Figure 2. A comparison of nutrient content between a conventional ground beef burger product and the Impossible Burger, portrayed as percentages of Daily Values set forth by the FDA.
** Impossible Foods was contacted in April of 2021 for this information. We were informed that such details are proprietary and could not be shared).
Non-Nutrient Targets: Fiber and Phytochemicals
Dietary fiber is classified as a non-nutrient that is not digested or absorbed by the body but is nonetheless essential to health. Fiber is known to support healthy digestion, lower cholesterol and glucose levels in the blood, and reduce risk for cardiovascular disease, obesity, and cancer. The FDA recommends that adults consume at least 28 grams of dietary fiber per day 10, however the average intake by Americans is estimated to be around 16.2 grams 11. Conventional meat offers no fiber content while the Impossible Burger contains 3 grams (slightly more than 10% of the daily value) since fiber is derived from plant materials (Figure 2).
There is a considerable amount of research regarding fiber enrichment of emulsion-based meat products like sausages, meatballs, and chicken nuggets. Fiber from a variety of sources has been studied in this context including fiber from dates (high oil binding capacity) and from sugar beets (high water holding capacity)12. Based on these properties, certain fiber types can be used to improve the functionality of meat products by stabilizing fat, increasing water retention, or contributing to texture. Interestingly, addition of certain sources of fiber may also decrease lipid oxidation rate, which is a large contributing factor to spoilage, and thus may lead to improved product storage conditions 12. It is highly conceivable that fiber enrichment of cultured meat is possible with the main challenge identified so far relating to consumer acceptance.
A second category of non-nutrients includes bioactive phytochemicals found in plants. These include tannins, flavones, triterpenoids, steroids, saponins, and alkaloids. The main antioxidant phytochemicals are carotenoids and polyphenols13. Antioxidants are beneficial not only to reducing free-radicals and inflammation in tissues that would lead to disease pathogenesis but also for extending product shelf-life through reduced oxidation. Clinical studies have illustrated that antioxidant phytochemicals can act as anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, and anti-aging substances and show protective action against cardiovascular disease, diseases of dementia, and irritable bowl syndrome 13. Furthermore, Allied Market Research suggests that the antioxidant industry will grow considerably over the new few years with decreasing production costs and increasing demand 14.
Table 1. Content of macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals in a conventional ground beef burger, the Impossible Burger, and levels recommended by FDA (Daily Values).
Strategies for Nutritional Enhancement
Methods for nutritional supplementation include simple and traditional approaches like media incorporation in addition to novel approaches like scaffold integration and cell engineering for endogenous production of non-native molecules. These strategies take advantage of the unique processing method of cultured meat which allows for significant control over input and incorporation in a physiologically relevant manner.
Media Incorporation
Mimicking the role of the bloodstream, which transports nutrients and building blocks absorbed from food to muscle tissues in an animal, cell culture media acts as a supply of essential components for cells in vitro. The composition of media is therefore vital to the creation of a cultivated meat product that can rival conventional meat in nutritional value. Aside from supplementation of nutrients during later stages of processing as is typical of enriched or fortified foods, media supplementation is the most straightforward method of nutritional enhancement. Factors associated with nutrient uptake are important to consider when it comes to media supplementation to ensure retention and cost-efficiency.
Basic culture media typically contains a source of carbon and nitrogen in the form of glucose and amino acids in addition to vitamins, inorganic salts, and growth factors 15. Serum-free media must also incorporate a lipid or fatty acid component. Although vitamins are established essential components for cell growth in vitro, little data exists describing just how efficiently cells them up. Similarly, a wide range of minerals are included in basal medium but the uptake kinetics of very few have been well studied. Iron is one of the few that has been investigated in this context and is also an underconsumed nutrient. Although typical basal media contains no or low amounts of iron, studies show that iron supplementation can increase the content of iron inside the cells 16. However binding and transport proteins may also be required for such uptake. Minerals like iron and vitamins like B12 both require accessory proteins to facilitate uptake16.
Media supplementation is likely the most traditional approach from a cell culture perspective and provides the opportunity to modulate multiple components and content over time. Amino acid sources, lipid composition, vitamins, and minerals are all capable of targeting via media. Furthermore, nutrients ideal for fortification but with low stability could be supplemented towards the end of the process to reduce costs. Future research efforts should focus on comparing the nutritional profile of current cultured meat iterations to conventional meat and also on gaining a definitive understanding of micronutrient uptake by cells in vitro.
Scaffold Integration
An inventive approach to nutrient enhancement in cultured meat is designing scaffolding with heightened nutritional properties or health benefiting additives. For many 3D cultured meat products a scaffold is required to structurally support cells during the growth and differentiation process. Sometimes the scaffold material is intended to degrade and be replaced by endogenously secreted scaffold proteins from the cells, while other times it can be deliberately incorporated into the final product. Both categories can be considered good targets for nutritional supplementation, although for different purposes.
First, scaffolds that are designed to degrade during the culturing process can still act as reservoirs of nutrients for the cells themselves. An essential function of the extracellular matrix is to trap growth factors and other molecules and control their release to nearby cells. Recently, scaffolding in tissue engineering applications has been studied for the purpose of controlled drug release17. A similar approach could be applied to cultured meat, where scaffolds could contain nutritional supplements to be released to cells for uptake. While similar in outcome to media supplementation, depending on the cell type and refeeding timeline this could actually be a method of cost reduction as nutrients would remain trapped near the cells and not need to be replenished during each media replacement or if media is cycled through a bioreactor.
Second, scaffolds that will not degrade and are meant to be a part of the final food product can serve many types of nutritional incorporation. Soy protein isolate (SPI)-containing scaffolds are not only good supporters of muscle cell growth and differentiation, but could also improve the plant-based protein content of the end-product 18. Cellulose-based scaffolds are slow to degrade and could act as a source of fiber in meat products that traditionally contain none 19. The addition of antioxidant plant extracts like anthocyanin-rich red raspberry extract and blueberry extract to soy protein nanofiber scaffolds has previously been investigated and shown to be successful 20. While these studies predominantly focused on outcomes related to oxidation they do illustrate the opportunities for adding phytochemicals that could benefit both customer health and product shelf-life.
Cell & Metabolic Engineering
As techniques for cell and metabolic engineering advance, novel opportunities and targets for nutritional enhancement of cultured meat will emerge. Research in this vein is beginning to pivot towards potential food applications of metabolic engineering. It was recently demonstrated that muscle cells could be engineered to produce antioxidant phytonutrients that are typically found only in plants. Through genetic modification to incorporate the enzymes for a biosynthetic pathway that converts geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate into carotenoids, bovine muscle cells were tuned to produce varying levels of active antioxidants capable of combating oxidation which is implicated in both spoilage of food as well as certain cancers associated with red meat consumption21. One could envision applying this approach to the incorporation of vitamin biosynthesis pathways or enhancing the endogenous expression of certain proteins. Of course, while creating an animal product with plant-like benefits is an exciting prospect, metabolically engineered cell-based meat will likely encounter initial regulatory roadblocks as genetically modified products.
A Brief Techno-Economic Overview of Proposed Strategies
Even before the onset of a global pandemic prices of raw materials for vitamins and mineral supplements were climbing. According to SpendEdge’s Global Vitamins Market - Procurement Intelligence Report from 2019 as reported by Business Wire, while global demand for foods formulated with nutritional supplements is growing rapidly, a simultaneous increase in raw material price is accelerating the market price of vitamins 22. Covid-19 related supply chain issues have only exacerbated this problem, producing shortages of raw materials particularly for vitamins and minerals related to immunity or that are predominantly sourced from China 23. Although some of these elements may soon be alleviated, it is likely that increasing prices will remain especially as regulatory groups become more active in the supplement space and set new requirements for quality standards 24.
Processes that will involve supplementation directly through media will require minor upstream investment to determine ideal nutrient concentrations, supplementation timeline, and uptake efficiency. Upstream process optimization costs will also be low and rolled into the cost of general media refeeding process and scaling strategies. The majority of cost potential with this technique lies in the downstream cost related to the continuous supplementation of media as it is cycled (Figure 3). However, depending on the devised strategy and cell uptake properties for the nutrients of interest, supplementation may not need to occur throughout the entire culture process and could be included in the medium towards the final stage, lessening the downstream cost burden.
Nutrient supplementation via scaffold incorporation will likely incur moderate upfront investment in R&D. Many scaffold fabrication methods are highly sensitive to alterations in solution composition and little published research is available detailing vitamin, mineral, or other nutritional supplementation of all of these scaffold types so significant optimization may be required. Once a successful prototype is developed however, the following downstream costs related to nutrient addition itself should be minimal and restricted to the scaffold synthesis phase, although the ability to store the synthesized scaffolds at scale may pose difficulties for nutrient stability depending on the nutrient. As this approach involves only one stage of incorporation at the very beginning of the process and in relatively small volumes, downstream costs will likely be much lower than would be required for media supplementation.
Lastly, metabolic engineering to design cells that can produce vitamins or antioxidants themselves will have the largest associated upstream R&D costs. Cells not only need to be genetically engineered to possess a novel biosynthetic pathway but must also be unaffected in all other aspects related to the culture process – growth rate, morphology, viability, differentiation capacity, etc. However, once a cell line is successfully created there would be minimal downstream and operating costs associated with nutrient supplementation since the nutrients will be produced endogenously by the cells.
Figure 3. Balance of relative investment input between upstream R&D efforts and downstream application and operational costs of three strategies for nutritional enhancement of cultured meat products.
Challenges & Open Questions
Stability & Degradation
A key area of concern regarding nutritional supplementation is the stability of the additives. Companies should be able to guarantee that most of the nutritional value is maintained following exposure to cooking or freezing (depending on the intended storage method and food application), light, and time sitting on the shelves of a grocery store in order for it to be beneficial. Furthermore, even at the cell culture stage several nutrients may be unstable in media or negatively interact with other components. It is important to be aware of these vulnerabilities and design an appropriate supplementation strategy.
Most vitamins are sensitive or highly sensitive to temperature, oxidation, light, and moisture levels (Table 2)25. Cooking method can also influence extent of vitamin loss (frying, baking, boiling, etc.). For instance, almost 35% of vitamin A content is lost during frying and almost 50% of vitamin B1 (thiamin) is lost during baking - both likely applications of cultured meat products25. Vitamin B3 (niacin) on the other hand is stable under many conditions, but can be lost to leaching during boiling. Vitamin A and D are extremely sensitive to light exposure, while vitamins A, D, C, and B9 (folate) are particularly susceptible to oxidation25. For some vitamins like vitamin C, a combination of light, oxygen exposure, and temperature fluctuations can lead to significant nutrient loss during processing and storage. A typical approach to offset these loses if to over-fortify by a certain estimation of what would be lost during these steps. However, this can lead to the potential for over consumption of certain nutrients which can also have negative health outcomes.
In addition to product storage considerations, it is important to create strategies for vitamin stabilization in chemically defined media for the cell culture phase of production. A disadvantage of serum-free media pursued by most cell-based meat companies is the lack of stabilizing proteins that can protect significant degradation of vitamins26. Furthermore, while considerations such as light exposure and pH are essential to vitamin supplementation, one must also take into account the interactions of these various nutrients with other essential cell culture media components. Studies show that the presence of certain vitamins can actually destroy other vitamins or amino acids26. Approaches to mitigate degradation and reactions between nutrients will need to be tested, but frequently include use of alternative vitamin chemical forms, metal chelation, or encapsulation via nanoemulsions26.
Table 2. Outline of conditions which lead to the degradation of specific vitamins.
Potential Effects on Meat Quality and Properties
Addition or alterations in certain nutrients can affect the taste, color, texture, and general properties of a meat product which can ultimately influence consumer acceptance.
Protein: Alterations in protein quantity, depending on the specific protein, could change the texture and tenderness of meat. Although collagen supplements are currently trending, it is generally recognized that the quantity of connective tissue in meat, composed of collagen and elastin, impacts tenderness and cooking time27. It will be important to study which proteins can be increased that do not influence texture, tenderness, or taste of the product.
Fat: Adjustment of fatty acid profiles via dietary fatty acid supplementation in livestock has been studied for decades. These studies have shown that supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids produces an oily final product since these fatty acids are liquid at room temperature 28. This can lead to poorer consumer acceptance, increased susceptibility to spoilage, and off flavors. Other fatty acids that are beneficial to human health, such as conjugated linoleic acid, did not lead to such outcomes 28. Overall, these findings are species specific and not investigated in an in vitro model, so it remains to be seen whether omega-3 fatty acid supplementation would negatively impact a cultured meat product.
Iron: Sufficient quantities of iron are required for both the proper taste and color of meat. Iron can be stored as part of a heme group in hemoglobin or myoglobin (main contributor to red coloring) or in a non-heme form 16. Heme-iron is more readily absorbed but may also be associated with increased risk for cancer 5. Too much iron can also cause undesirable metallic flavors so it will be necessary to determine the ideal balance between a form in which it is bioavailable, a quantity that is beneficial, and that it does not negatively impact taste.
Vitamins: Vitamins with antioxidant properties could positively influence the longevity of color and taste in cultured meat products. Dietary addition of vitamin E to livestock before slaughter reduces the rate of meat discoloration 29. This is likely due to its antioxidant actions, slowing oxidation which could also limit the development of rancidity.
Fiber: Depending on the source, dietary fiber supplementation can drastically affect the water retention capacity of meat products 12. Improved water retention leads to enhanced texture and tenderness of meat during cooking. These results vary based on source and quantity of fiber, so a strategy for fiber selection would be required if intending to supplement in a scaffold or during final processing.
Antioxidants: The addition of active antioxidants to cultured meat could reduce oxidation which is the key cause of spoilage, discoloration, and off flavors. Additionally, antioxidants and phytochemicals from particular plants (such as anthocyanin-rich red raspberry extract) could provide a potential solution to red coloring of cultured meat if it ends up being difficult or costly to augment myoglobin levels. Myoglobin is a main contributor to meat’s red color however the levels are quite low in reports of current cultured meat prototypes 16.
Consumer Acceptance
Determining how consumers will receive nutritionally enhanced cultured meat products in comparison to nutritionally equivalent cultured meat or conventional meat products will be a necessary starting point for companies seeking to supplement a specific nutrient. Any perception of negative effects of supplementation on taste, texture, safety, cost, or naturalness of cultured meat can diminish the intent to purchase30. The Cellular Agriculture Society released a report in 2019 describing the results of a consumer study comparing the perceptions of cultured meat after reading a passage about nutritionally enhanced or nutritionally equivalent cultured meat31. The study found that those in the nutritionally enhanced group perceived cultured meat to be healthier and more able to prevent disease while the nutritionally equivalent group was noted to view cultured meat as more similar in taste and texture to conventional meat. However, limitations are described which could have contributed to these latter results, as similarity in taste and texture was reiterated in the nutritionally equivalent passage but not in the nutritionally enhanced passage. Overall, exposure to the information about nutritionally enhanced cultured meat did not significantly alter willingness to purchase or perception of naturalness compared to the nutritionally equivalent group.
Results such as these illustrate that nutritional enhancements can benefit the health perception of cultured meat without affecting the perception of product naturalness, suggesting that nutritional enhancements could add value to cultured meat products. Companies seeking to elevate nutrition in their products would benefit from a strategy involving the surveying of consumer acceptance of specific nutrients while also prioritizing the maintenance of proper meat taste and texture.
Conclusion and Final Remarks
As more and more companies jump into the cultivated meat space and established companies begin to debut products there will be intense competition to appeal to the initial consumer base. Enticing customers who buy conventional meat products to switch to cultured meat will require matching or exceeding expectations for taste, texture, and nutritional content. A rapidly growing market for nutritional supplements highlights the demand for improved nutrition of food products. Cultured meat companies could capitalize on this factor by targeting nutrients found in minimal amounts in conventional meat products, such as vitamins A, C, D, and E, as well as calcium, potassium, and fiber.
Still, due to the unstable nature of many vitamins and minimal available research describing nutritional supplementation efficiency in vitro for this application, the upstream R&D investment may be sizable depending on the approach. Strategies for nutritional enhancement targeting media are the most well established but may require continuous supplementation at large volumes. Incorporating nutrients into scaffolds may require significant optimization but would necessitate less frequent supplementation and smaller volumes of materials. Lastly, metabolically engineering a cell line to produce endogenous nutrients involves the greatest R&D investment but removes the downstream costs associated with supplementation.
Preliminary reports signal that consumers are open to nutritionally enhanced cultured meat products and may perceive them as healthier than products without nutritional enhancement. Though still in early stages, if companies are able to deliver on nutritional improvements of cultured meat without affecting taste, texture, or significantly altering cost they may be able to increase consumer interest compared to competitors.
References:
1. Bird JK, Murphy RA, Ciappio ED, McBurney MI. Risk of deficiency in multiple concurrent micronutrients in children and adults in the United States. Nutrients. 2017;9(7). doi:10.3390/nu9070655
2. Astrup A, Magkos F, Bier DM, et al. Saturated Fats and Health: A Reassessment and Proposal for Food-Based Recommendations: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(7):844-857. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2020.05.077
3. Lian Z, Perrard XYD, Peng X, et al. Replacing Saturated Fat With Unsaturated Fat in Western Diet Reduces Foamy Monocytes and Atherosclerosis in Male Ldlr-/- Mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2020;40(1):72-85. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.119.313078
4. Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JHY, et al. Dietary fats and cardiovascular disease: A presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;136(3):e1-e23. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510
5. Zaraska M. Lab-grown meat is in your future, and it may be healthier than the real stuff - The Washington Post. Published May 2, 2016. Accessed May 14, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/lab-grown-meat-is-in-your-future-and-it-may-be-healthier-than-the-real-stuff/2016/05/02/aa893f34-e630-11e5-a6f3-21ccdbc5f74e_story.html
6. High Protein-Based Food Market will Showcase Positive Impact during 2020-2024 | Shift In Preference Toward Natural And Herbal Products to Boost the Market Growth | Technavio | Business Wire. Published October 16, 2020. Accessed May 28, 2021. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20201016005501/en/High-Protein-Based-Food-Market-will-Showcase-Positive-Impact-during-2020-2024-Shift-In-Preference-Toward-Natural-And-Herbal-Products-to-Boost-the-Market-Growth-Technavio
7. Cummings NE, Williams EM, Kasza I, et al. Restoration of metabolic health by decreased consumption of branched-chain amino acids. J Physiol. 2018;596(4):623-645. doi:10.1113/JP275075
8. Parkhitko AA, Jouandin P, Mohr SE, Perrimon N. Methionine metabolism and methyltransferases in the regulation of aging and lifespan extension across species. Aging Cell. 2019;18(6). doi:10.1111/acel.13034
9. Odphp. 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.; 2015. Accessed April 6, 2021. http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/.
10. FDA. Daily Value and Percent Daily Value: Changes on the New Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels Daily Value vs. % Daily Value.; 2020. Accessed April 17, 2021. www.FDA.gov/NewNutritionFactsLabel
11. Quagliani D, Felt-Gunderson P. Closing America’s Fiber Intake Gap: Communication Strategies From a Food and Fiber Summit. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2017;11(1):80-85. doi:10.1177/1559827615588079
12. Mehta N, Ahlawat SS, Sharma DP, Dabur RS. Novel trends in development of dietary fiber rich meat products—a critical review. J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52(2):633-647. doi:10.1007/s13197-013-1010-2
13. Zhang YJ, Gan RY, Li S, et al. Antioxidant phytochemicals for the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases. Molecules. 2015;20(12):21138-21156. doi:10.3390/molecules201219753
14. Allied Market Research. Antioxidants Market Report, Size & Share, Forecast - 2022.; 2016. Accessed April 19, 2021. https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/anti-oxidants-market
15. O’Neill EN, Cosenza ZA, Baar K, Block DE. Considerations for the development of cost-effective cell culture media for cultivated meat production. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2021;20(1):686-709. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12678
16. Fraeye I, Kratka M, Vandenburgh H, Thorrez L. Sensorial and Nutritional Aspects of Cultured Meat in Comparison to Traditional Meat: Much to Be Inferred. Front Nutr. 2020;7:35. doi:10.3389/fnut.2020.00035
17. Rambhia KJ, Ma PX. Controlled drug release for tissue engineering. J Control Release. 2015;219:119-128. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.049
18. Ben-Arye T, Shandalov Y, Ben-Shaul S, et al. Textured soy protein scaffolds enable the generation of three-dimensional bovine skeletal muscle tissue for cell-based meat. Nat Food. Published online 2020. doi:10.1038/s43016-020-0046-5
19. Novotna K, Havelka P, Sopuch T, et al. Cellulose-based materials as scaffolds for tissue engineering. Cellulose. 2013;20(5):2263-2278. doi:10.1007/s10570-013-0006-4
20. Wang S, Marcone MF, Barbut S, Lim LT. Electrospun soy protein isolate-based fiber fortified with anthocyanin-rich red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) extracts. Food Res Int. 2013;52(2):467-472. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2012.12.036
21. Stout AJ, Mirliani AB, Soule-Albridge EL, Cohen JM, Kaplan DL. Engineering carotenoid production in mammalian cells for nutritionally enhanced cell-cultured foods. Metab Eng. 2020;62:126-137. doi:10.1016/j.ymben.2020.07.011
22. Vitamins Market Procurement Intelligence Report | Vitamins Price Trends, Vitamins Procurement Best Practices Insights. Published September 20, 2019. Accessed May 14, 2021. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20190920005303/en/Vitamins-Market-Procurement-Intelligence-Report-Vitamins-Price-Trends-Vitamins-Procurement-Best-Practices-Insights-Now-Available-From-SpendEdge
23. Hayes D. Ingredients for supplements rise in price | Natural Products INSIDER. Published June 10, 2020. Accessed May 14, 2021. https://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/supply-chain/supply-chains-tighten-some-supplement-raw-materials-contract-manufacturers-report
24. Thakkar S, Anklam E, Xu A, et al. Regulatory landscape of dietary supplements and herbal medicines from a global perspective. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2020;114:104647. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2020.104647
25. Fortification Basics: Stability. In: Opportunities for Micronutrient Interventions. ; 1998.
26. Schnellbaecher A, Binder D, Bellmaine S, Zimmer A. Vitamins in cell culture media: Stability and stabilization strategies. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2019;116(6):1537-1555. doi:10.1002/bit.26942
27. Beltrán JA, Bellés M. Effect of freezing on the quality of meat. In: Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability. Elsevier; 2018:493-497. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.22461-X
28. Azain MJ. Role of fatty acids in adipocyte growth and development1,2. J Anim Sci. 2004;82(3):916-924. doi:10.2527/2004.823916x
29. Robbins K, Jensen J, Ryan KJ, Homco-Ryan C, McKeith FK, Brewer MS. Dietary vitamin E supplementation effects on the color and sensory characteristics of enhanced beef steaks. Meat Sci. 2003;64(3):279-285. doi:10.1016/S0309-1740(02)00198-5
30. Guan X, Lei Q, Yan Q, et al. Trends and ideas in technology, regulation and public acceptance of cultured meat. Futur Foods. 2021;3:100032. doi:10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100032
31. Baumann F, Bryant C. Can Nutritional Enhancements Boost The Consumer Appeal of Cultured Meat?; 2019. Accessed May 14, 2021. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336020898_Can_Nutritional_Enhancements_Boost_The_Consumer_Appeal_of_Cultured_Meat
